Nadmi
10-09-25

0 : Odsłon:


70 years of the Marshall plan. Facts and myths about the largest development program of the 20th century
 
This plan has become a model of effective and effective economic assistance. His influence on the reconstruction of Europe, however, can be exaggerated.

Gen. George Marschall, one of the initiators of the US assistance program for Europe.
Universal Images Group / Corbis

Raise debris and build modern, developed economies. What Western Europe did after World War II often stimulates the imagination of those who dream of rapid development. References to the American program more than half a century ago appear constantly in public debate, also in Poland. Donald Tusk in the summer, and Ewa Kopacz in the autumn argued in the Sejm that EU funds for Poland are greater than the funds of the Marshall plan. At the beginning of January, the British "The Guardian" issued an appeal by European intellectuals for a "Marshall plan for Ukraine." Rockman Bob Geldof and Bono, in turn, urged the Marshall Plan for Africa when they organized a series of Live 8 concerts in 2005.

For proponents of introducing similar programs for poor countries today, the Marshall Plan is the main historical argument for the effectiveness of external financial assistance. However, what do we know today about its impact on the reconstruction of Europe? This issue has become the subject of interesting debate among historians.

The beginning of 30 years of glory:
On one of the posters promoting the Marshall plan there is a ship symbolizing European countries, in whose sails the American aid wind blows. The message was clear: financial support from the New World drives the integration and economic development of the Old Continent. This goal was reflected in the official name: European Recovery Program. It was commonly described by the name of George Marshall, then Secretary of State of the United States, one of the initiators of the project.

In four years, from 1948 to 1951, the US allocated over $ 13 billion to 16 European countries. Under these funds, the United States shipped raw materials (including coal), food, machinery and other products. European governments sold donated goods on internal markets, and the money collected in this way was allocated for investments, loans to enterprises, covering budget deficits, repayment of debt or subsequent orders.

In the opinion of American diplomacy, Europe was in a deep economic and political crisis that could make it the spoil of communists. The Marshall Plan was therefore part of the tactic announced by Truman to stop communism. Under the pressure of the Soviet Union, Eastern European countries, including Poland, refused to participate in the program.

American assistance coincided with the beginning of an era of unprecedented development in Western Europe. For almost 30 years, until the early 1970s, economic growth reached an average of 5 percent. annually. This was not the case earlier or later in this area. The Old Continent not only quickly rebuilt after two world wars, but also dynamically developed. The per capita income in the early 1970s was almost two and a half times higher than before the war. Europeans have achieved virtually the same standard of living as Americans. The wages of workers, who also benefited from the welfare of the welfare provided by the state, increased, and more and more consumer goods appeared in stores, which more and more buyers could afford. In France, it is customary to refer to this time as 30 years of glory (les trente glorieuses), in Sweden - record years (rekordaren).

In 1970, British historian Richard Mayne was not alone when he wrote: "From a 20-year perspective, it can be said with certainty that the Marshall Plan was a major leap forward for Europe. Investment aid, fertilizers, machinery and tools, production programs and growth planning laid the foundation for later development. Thanks to the supply of food and raw materials, the Marshall plan saved Europeans from an imminent economic disaster. "

In this sense, help from across the Atlantic saved European democracy, averted the communist threat, and led European economies to a path of growth. It became a catalyst for the European economic miracle.

Europe could do it alone?
In the 1980s, however, more voices began to appear suggesting that the importance of the Marshall plan for the reconstruction of Europe was exaggerated. British historian Alan Milward, who published the book "The Reconstruction of Western Europe" in 1984, pointed out that Western Europe entered the path of growth right after the war before the Marshall plan was implemented. By the end of 1947, Great Britain and France had reached pre-war production levels by in the middle of the following year, the average level of industrial production in Western Europe exceeded the level before the war. The Marshall Plan was adopted by the American Congress in April 1948, and aid did not start flowing to Europe until the summer of 1948.

Milward claimed that by assigning the lead role to the Marshall plan, Europe's potential was underestimated. Already in 1945–47 European governments made a huge effort, creating the foundations of a welfare state and preparing reconstruction programs. The prosperity was influenced by the public investment plan of the French Commissioner for Planning Jean Monnet and the reform of West German Minister of Economy Ludwig Erhard. The economic problems of Europe in 1947 were rather a temporary shortage of dollars, caused by large imports from the United States. They resulted not from a deep economic collapse, but from the economic boom in 1945–47.

According to Milward, help under the Marshall plan was significant and could slightly increase the rate of economic growth. However, it was too small to significantly affect the condition of European economies and bring about the growth effect that Europe experienced in the next two decades. The value of products reaching Europe under US assistance accounted for an average of 1 to 4 percent. Host countries' GDP. For comparison - the inflow of European funds to Poland is about 2 percent. GDP per year (after deducting Polish contributions to the EU budget). The Marshall plan is different if you look at its total value. For example, France received almost $ 2.5 billion under the four-year Marshall Plan, which accounted for 11 percent. its 1948 GDP

EUR 105 billion, which will come to Poland from EU funds for the years 2014–20 (under the cohesion policy and the common agricultural policy), constitutes about 25 percent. current Polish GDP. And the total sum of all money received from the Union in the years 2007–20 will be about 60 percent. Polish GDP from 2007. These sums actually exceed several times the support received by Europe under the Marshall plan.

So, did the Americans look at post-war Europe in too dark glasses, and their help was unnecessary?


Help alleviates conflicts:
Milward's revelations, although they brought a fresh perspective on the role of the Marshall plan and stripped his myth, were considered too harmful for the American aid program. Historians tended towards an indirect assessment: without apotheosis, but also without diminishing the role of this, as it were, a serious injection to the economy.

Barry Eichengreen, a well-known economic historian at Berkeley University, confirmed Milward's findings - in total, American aid has raised European GDP by around 2 percent. at a time when it increased by more than 20 percent. This does not mean that the Marshall plan played a negligible role. As Eichengreen pointed out, the improvement of social moods and living conditions of the population did not follow the post-war economic recovery and the progress of reconstruction. To a large extent, this was due to high expenditure on reconstruction and investment, which forced governments to reduce consumption expenditure. Workers' strikes, especially organized by communist trade unions, troubled Europe. In the spring and summer of 1947, a wave of strikes went through France. A year later, in Western Germany, trade unions announced a strike under the slogan "against the economic policy of exploiting the people." According to Eichengreen, there was a risk of repetition in Europe of the events of the interwar period, when some European governments - yielding to pressure - increased wages and pursued protectionist customs policy (they imposed high duties on imported products to protect domestic industry and jobs). In this way, rising inflation and high tariffs were destroying the European economy.

The Marshall Plan helped alleviate social conflicts. This facilitated the accumulation of funds for investments. According to Eichengreen, the conditions under which this aid was granted also determined the importance of the Marshall Plan. They forced European countries to cooperate (the European Organization for Economic Cooperation was founded then) and to give up protectionism. That is why the American historian called the Marshall Plan the most successful program of structural adjustment in history, that is, help that is also followed by specific directives on reforms and legal solutions.

Also the British historian Tony Judt, author of the popular monograph on the history of Europe "Postwar", distanced himself from the views of Milward. In his opinion, the Marshall plan was primarily psychological and political. By addressing food shortages, supporting economic growth in the short term, and reducing the burden of post-war chaos and destruction, he helped Europeans believe in the future. The improvement in moods clearly translated into the political situation. "The Marshall Plan has allowed Europeans to gain greater confidence. He ultimately helped them break with the legacy of chauvinism, depression and authoritarian solutions. (...) He made protectionist policy of the 1930s backward, unnecessary and ultimately absurd. "

Regardless of the discrepancy in assessments regarding the impact of American aid, all researchers agree that it did not hit the vacuum. The Marshall Plan has helped Europe tap into its potential. His story proves that external help can be a significant support for economic success, but not necessarily its direct cause.


: Wyślij Wiadomość.


Przetłumacz ten tekst na 91 języków
Procedura tłumaczenia na 91 języków została rozpoczęta. Masz wystarczającą ilość środków w wirtualnym portfelu: PULA . Uwaga! Proces tłumaczenia może trwać nawet kilkadziesiąt minut. Automat uzupełnia tylko puste tłumaczenia a omija tłumaczenia wcześniej dokonane. Nieprawidłowy użytkownik. Twój tekst jest właśnie tłumaczony. Twój tekst został już przetłumaczony wcześniej Nieprawidłowy tekst. Nie udało się pobrać ceny tłumaczenia. Niewystarczające środki. Przepraszamy - obecnie system nie działa. Spróbuj ponownie później Proszę się najpierw zalogować. Tłumaczenie zakończone - odśwież stronę.

: Podobne ogłoszenia.

HAYDEN. Company. Drills, services and components, diamond core drills.

ABOUT OUR COMPANY   Founded in 1953 Hayden Twist Drill and Tool Company has led the industry in producing high quality Twist Drills, Reamers and specialty tools. After over fifty years in business we remain a family owned and operated company, now in…

Bluza męska długa

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Opis. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : DETALE HANDLOWE: : Kraj: ( Polska ) : Zasięg…

BACHUS. Firma. Akcesoria do produkcji wyrobów domowych.

Witam wszystkich na stronie mojego sklepu! Jestem wielbicielem, hobbystą i pasjonatem wyrabiania domowych alkoholi i innych swojskich specjałów. Chciałbym zaprosić Państwa do zapoznania się z moją ofertą służącą do wytwarzania wina, miodu, piwa, nalewek i…

Ten żyroskopowy monocykl, będący dziełem płodnej wyobraźni profesora EJ Christie z Marion w stanie Ohio.

Ten żyroskopowy monocykl, będący dziełem płodnej wyobraźni profesora EJ Christie z Marion w stanie Ohio. Miał podobno osiągać prędkość do 400 mil na godzinę, chociaż w czasie, gdy pojawił się artykuł z kwietniowego wydania Popular Science, był jeszcze nie…

Dywan mozaika

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Opis. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : DETALE HANDLOWE: : Kraj: ( Polska ) : Zasięg…

Indianie Hopi to jedna z najstarszych cywilizacji w Ameryce Północnej.

Indianie Hopi to jedna z najstarszych cywilizacji w Ameryce Północnej. Ich najwyższą boginią, twórczynią i opiekunką wszystkich form życia na Ziemi, w tym ludzi, jest Kobieta-Pająk Kokyangviiti. Jej klan zajmuje centralne miejsce w tradycji Hopi. Duchowym…

ACTIV. Producent. Meble morskie.

Grupa Activ skupia trzy odrębne spółki działające w różnych obszarach branżowych: 1) sektor stoczniowy obsługuje- Activ Marine Interior www.activship.com 2) sektor jachtowy  - Activ Yachts www.activyachts.com 3) sektor produkcja mebli to - Activ…

Meditation. Hur man hittar frihet från ditt förflutna och släpper bort det som gör ont.

Meditation. Hur man hittar frihet från ditt förflutna och släpper bort det som gör ont. Meditation är en gammal praxis och ett effektivt verktyg för att läka ditt sinne och din kropp. Att öva meditation kan hjälpa till att minska stress och…

Scottish Highlands

Scottish Highlands Photo by @withluke

Carbonated drinks: They can take their toll on almost all health aspects, from skin, blood sugar, endocrine and mood.

Carbonated drinks: Carbonated drinks are one of your greatest enemies. They can take their toll on almost all health aspects, from skin, blood sugar, endocrine and mood. Don't believe the label slogans about how many vitamins and nutrients a drink…

Planhigyn mewn pot: Coed Crassula: Crassula arborescens, Oval Crassula: Crassula ovata,

Planhigyn mewn pot: Coed Crassula: Crassula arborescens, Oval Crassula: Crassula ovata, Mae Crassula yn edrych fel coeden bonsai. Mae'r planhigyn pot hwn hyd yn oed yn cyrraedd metr o uchder. Ei fantais yw nad oes angen unrhyw ofal arbennig arno. Gweld…

Bagaimana Anda memilih jus buah yang sehat?

Bagaimana Anda memilih jus buah yang sehat? Rak-rak toko dan supermarket dipenuhi dengan jus, yang kemasannya yang berwarna-warni memengaruhi imajinasi konsumen. Mereka menggoda dengan rasa eksotis, kandungan vitamin yang kaya, dijamin 100% kandungan…

Antyczna maszyna do pisania - Malling-Hansen.

Antyczna maszyna do pisania - Malling-Hansen. Została zaprojektowana w 1867 roku, a później opatentowana w 1870 roku. W tamtym czasie Malling Hansen Writing Ball był cudem technologicznym i 50 lat wyprzedzał swoje czasy. Wyjątkowa funkcjonalność tej…

Buty dziecięce

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Opis. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : DETALE HANDLOWE: : Kraj: ( Polska ) : Zasięg…

Це пояснює все: знаки Зодіаку поєднують кольори з почуттями та формами. Доля визначається їх кількістю:

Це пояснює все: знаки Зодіаку поєднують кольори з почуттями та формами. Доля визначається їх кількістю: Кожен скептично налаштований розум з невірою повинен дивитись на зв’язки між порами року та силою організму, який народився в даний місяць. Новий…

Archeolodzy nie wiedzą, skąd się wziął ten kamień i jaki jest jego cel.

Archeolodzy nie wiedzą, skąd się wziął ten kamień i jaki jest jego cel. Znajduje się w prowincji Abancay, Peru, na szczycie wzgórza zwanego Concacha. Mierzy 4 metry szerokości i 2 metry długości. Na powierzchni rzeźbiono ponad 200 figur o geometrycznych i…

1001: Թմրամոլության մեխանիզմ.

Թմրամիջոցների բուժում: Թմրամոլությունը վաղուց լուրջ խնդիր է առաջացրել: Գրեթե բոլորը հնարավորություն ունեն թմրանյութեր ձեռք բերել `կապված իրավական բարձունքների բարձր հասանելիության և առցանց վաճառքի հետ: Թմրամոլությունը, ինչպես և մյուս հակումները, կարող է…

CARLWOOD. Company. Manufacturers of hardwood and softwood lumber.

arlWood Lumber Limited is one of British Columbia’s leading manufacturers of hardwood and softwood lumber. We are advocates for the beauty and versatility of this Canadian natural resource that comes from our home province’s carefully managed forests.…

Teoria Strzałek. SZACHY. TS055

SZACHY           Szachy to taka gra, gdzie król nie umiera. Wśród czarnego światła brodzi bosy bocian. Dopieszczając w swym mózgu znajdującym się tuż za dziobem szczegóły lotu, pręży skrzydła i wdycha odór bieli. Czarne zaczynają pionem na de sześć.…

Zagłębiamy się w portale docierające do innych światów lub wymiarów, a co z prostym posiadaniem portalu na drugą stronę globu?

3000-letnia Brama Bahdinan w Babilonie (Irak) pierwsze zdjęcie pochodzi z 1898 r. ostatnie zdjęcie z 2021 r. Dlaczego rząd amerykański jest tak zainteresowany starym przejściem w Babilonie? Czy pamiętacie rytuał w Kairze w Egipcie? Zagłębiamy się w…

Życie na Ziemi zostało prawie zniszczone przez ogień, kiedy Szakal ukradł jeden ze statków Nummo i rozbił go o ziemię.

Wysoka Kapłanka reprezentuje Mistrzynię Mowy, Nummo (Nommo) , która oddała swoje życie, aby jej DNA mogło zostać użyte do stworzenia idealnej hybrydy Człowieka/Nummo. Życie na Ziemi zostało prawie zniszczone przez ogień, kiedy Szakal ukradł jeden ze…

Domek kształtów

: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : Opis. : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : DETALE HANDLOWE: : Kraj: ( Polska ) : Zasięg…

Kína vírus. Hver eru einkenni kransæðavíruss? Hvað er kransæðavirus og hvar kemur hún fram? Covid-19:

Kína vírus. Hver eru einkenni kransæðavíruss? Hvað er kransæðavirus og hvar kemur hún fram? Covid-19: Coronavirus drepur í Kína. Yfirvöld kynntu hömlun á borgina um 11 milljónir - Wuhan. Sem stendur er ekki mögulegt að komast inn og yfirgefa borgina.…

DAIMLER. Company. Truck, school bus, parts and service.

Thomas Built Buses is a subsidiary of Daimler Trucks North America LLC, a Daimler company and the largest heavy-duty truck manufacturer in North America. That gives Thomas Built the backing and resources to continually research innovative solutions and…

Maszyny liczące Johanna Hefrricha Mullera, niemieckiego inżyniera i budowniczego (1746-1830).

Maszyny liczące Johanna Hefrricha Mullera, niemieckiego inżyniera i budowniczego (1746-1830).

Ženske trenerke - nužnost ili zastarjelost?

Ženske trenerke - nužnost ili zastarjelost? Ženski džemperi oduvijek su bili vrlo popularni. Dugogodišnje hlače prestale su biti element ormara koji je namijenjen samo posjećivanju teretane. S vremenom se stilovi, modeli mijenjaju, ali ljubav prema…